The Portland History - Shaping Forces

Remember the former things long past, for I am God, and there is no other.

Isaiah 46:9

The initial inhabitants of what we now know as Portland were the Chinook Indians. The Chinookan Indians were divided into several tribes: Clatsop, Kathlamet, Skilloot, Multnomah, Willamette Falls, Clackamas, Cascade Indians, Hood River, and Wasco (see Appendix A). Through their salmon fishing and trading, the Chinookan-speaking peoples became probably the wealthiest of all Native Americans. Historian Gordon DeMarco explains this:

“Chinooks built and lived in large cedar plank lodge houses with an open fireplace in the center. Some of the houses were one hundred feet long and forty feet wide and housed several families.”1.

Before the City

The Spanish had little interest the territory above California, and were more interested in the wealthier Indians and resources of South America. The British, however, had a strong interest in the Northwest because of the rich fur trade. Captain James Cook (England) explored the Pacific in three trips, but there is no evidence he found the Columbia or the land that is now Portland. It was an American, Captain Robert Gray, who first crossed what is now the Columbia bar and sailed up the river in 1792. He named the river Columbia after his ship, the Columbia.

In 1803 the United States more than doubled in size by purchasing from France the land west of the Mississippi that was not claimed by Spain. In 1804 Thomas Jefferson commissioned the Lewis and Clark expedition for what was a secret mission to chart the northwest part of this land.

In August of 1805, the team reached the Columbia river and by November approached the area that would not be Portland for another forty years. At a village of 25 houses, they found 200 flathead Indians. These were mostly Chinookan, who had their heads flattened at birth by placing the child's head between two boards that were tightened with leather ties. The flattened head was a sign of aristocratic distinction. The village was near the current location of Portland International Airport. The Indians treated the expedition with great kindness, although the social amenities were not the best, but Lewis found the Indians “assuming and disagreeable companions”, and Clark wrote

“During the time we were at dinner those fellows Stold [sic] my pipe Tomahawk which they were smoking with...”2

They also found a single community of Multnomahs on Suavie Island that numbered about 2400.

In 1820 there were perhaps 300 non-Indian men living the "plateau", which included what is now Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and Montana. In 1825 the first whites settled in the Portland area. They were sent by the British Hudson's Bay Company to build and operate Fort Vancouver, which stands to this day. Eleven other townsites sprang up in the vicinity over the following 25 years. At the same time, other settlers started moving in the area now known as Oregon City. Stiff competition characterized their relations. Each envisioned itself as the territory's developing principal city, whose destiny was fame and fortune. For many years, Oregon City appeared to be the winner. Portland, then called The Clearing, was nothing but a campsite for travellers between Fort Vancouver and Oregon City.

In spite of its humble origins, The Clearing was destined for greatness because of its location near the confluence of the Columbia and Willamette Rivers. Oregon City, situated several miles upriver was beyond the Willamette Bar, a serious obstacle for ocean-going ships. In contrast, The Clearing, as Captain John H. Couch of Massachusetts observed in 1840, “would make a good spot for a seaport, for any vessel which can come up the Columbia can come this far up the Willamette”3. In 1844, after hiring a canoe and a crew of Indians and carefully sounding the depth of the Willamette, F. W. Pettygrove joined Lawrence Lovejoy as half-owner of The Clearing for a price of $50. Pettygrove wanted to name the settlement Portland, after his home town in Maine. Lovejoy was from Massachusetts and insisted it be named Boston. In the end, the men flipped a coin. Pettygrove won the toss and, in 1845, The Clearing became Portland.

The British Hudson's Bay Company had a two-fold aim. One was to claim the territory for the British and shut out the Americans, the second was to make a profit for their shareholders. Under the leadership of Dr. John McLoughlin and George Simpson (governor of the Hudson's Bay Company), they enlisted the help of a mountain man, Peter Skene Ogden, to carry out their scheme. Their plan was to shut all fur trading out of the land below and to the east of the Columbia by trapping out all fur-bearing animals, creating a “fur desert”. Ogden almost succeeded, but eventually the plan failed because of the appearance of American mountain men on the scene.

Now these mountain men were a tough breed. They were rough, lived out-of-doors all year, and trapped the fur-bearing animals. Once a year they came into the fort for trading, then disappeared again into the mountains. At times they fought the Indians, at times married their squaws. They had little social skills and would be misfits in the normal American culture. They included Mexicans, run-away slaves, and sometimes mixed blood. Some of these American mountain men became famous such as Jedediah Smith, Richard Leland, Joseph Gale, and Joe Meek of Oregon. It was these men who pioneered routes from the west to the east and made it possible for the settlers to come west, settling the west faster than the British could complete their plan. In all fairness, it should be said the Dr. John McLoughlin was a complex individual, sometimes aiding the British cause and sometimes aiding the American. It was McLoughlin that started the settlement at French Prairie that drew a large base of American settlers. This enabled his company to turn a large profit, but at the cost of helping the American settler movement.

Confluent Issues and Events

A confluent event is an external historical influence (such as immigration, military conquest, natural disasters, and introduction of religious messages) that flows into and permanently affect the life of the community.

The Oregon Trail

The completion of the Oregon Trail was a confluent event, as it made it possible for a large number of settlers to move west to Oregon, establishing America's land claim a third way in disputes with the English. There were then three confluent events that established America's claim on the land: Gray discovered the territory, Lewis and Clark explored it, the settlers claimed it.

After the first wagon train arrived in the Oregon Country via the Oregon Trail in 1842, the trickle of settlers became a flood and the population in the region boomed. From a mere 60 residents in 1846, Portland grew rapidly (Figure 5.1). Figure 5.2 shows this growth graphically.

Who were these people? What sort of city did they build? These questions are critical to our understanding of Portland's formative years.

From the beginning, Portland has had a split personality. Some have diagnosed it as “municipal schizophrenia” and the condition persists to this day.

“Portland, Oregon has a split personality. It can't quite make up its mind whether to be a swashbuckling industrial giant...or a landed squire pruning rosebushes and meditatively watching salmon ascend to their mountain spawning grounds.”4

This split personality applies not only to Portland's industrial development, but to the type of settlers who initially called this place home.

This Oregon territory attracted family men with instincts for settlement and development rather that adventure and exploitation. Legend has it that at one of the crossroads intersecting the Oregon Trail “a pile of gold-bearing quartz marked the road to California; the other had a sign bearing the words `To Oregon'. Those who could read took the trail to Oregon”5. Typical settlers were “plain, respectable, reasonable well-educated white people of moderate circumstances”6. For this reason early Portland looked far more like a New England village than the wild west boom towns springing up all along the Pacific coast. “Unlike...Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Seattle, all of whom had turbulent, lawless infancies, Portland seemed to have been born middle-aged and middle-class respectable”7. The visitor to Portland by the late 1840s would have found a school, a Methodist church, “several dozen neatly painted white houses, a wharf, and perhaps two or three sailing vessels discharging or taking in cargo”8.

These early travelers were conservative, rugged individuals. Some of these were pioneer Christians who traveled west. These Christians had to leave a traditional half-hearted Christianity behind and rest on a strong faith for a successful survival of the long, hard trip. Once they reached Oregon, the test meant that either they had a stronger faith or, in some cases, they felt they had made it on their own and no longer had a need for God. They saw the plains, mountains, and native inhabitants as their Red Sea and themselves as the new Israel in a promised land. This rugged, frontier individualism still dominates the culture of Oregon.

In most countries when a father died the land was parceled out to the sons. In the United States, the oldest son inherited all the land. The westward migration was driven, in many cases, by the need for more land. This was fueled by the introduction of the Linn Bill in 1840 and the Donation Land Act in 1850. Perhaps one of the problems of our culture today is there is no more west. A secondary motive of those coming west was the desire to escape the British influence.

It is interesting to speculate on why Portland became the dominant city of the state and territory. Astoria's location at the mouth of the Columbia would lead one to suppose it would be a center of industry for the state, and by 1911 Astoria was indeed the second largest city in Oregon. A fire in 1920 destroyed Astoria's business district and then the Depression of 1930 stagnated the growth of the city. Astoria is also isolated from main travel routes. Portland, with its ease of access and at the mouth of two waterways, rose to become the dominant city of the Northeast until passed in size by Seattle with Seattle's emphasis on industry.

[Questions:

Are any symbols or designs in early community?

Any traumas in early days?

Any diseases or plagues that affected the community at large?

Did they enter into pacts with spirits to resolve these traumas? How and when?

Was any of this spirit worship formalized?

Any curses placed on community or Christians in early days?

What role did water play in the early history?

Where are the headwaters for the area, and what significance did that have for the early settlers? the Native Americans?]

The Discovery of Gold

In 1848 gold was discovered in California, and there was a sense of abandonment in Portland as men left everything (including families) with the vision of quick wealth. Women and children were left behind to mind the store. By 1849 there were only three men left in Portland.

Gold was discovered in the Rogue River Valley in 1850, causing an Oregon Gold Rush with many Indian wars between the whites and Indians as men moved into this part of Oregon for the first time. The significance here is not the amount of gold produced (1.5% of nation's gold) but:

• Opening of the southern part of Oregon to exploration.
• Portland's shift from an old, sedate city to the commercial and transportation center of the Northwest.

It is very important to understand how the Portland migration differed from the rest of the western travelers. As settlers moved west on the Oregon Trail, the migration was really of three types: The Mormons, Californians, and the Oregonians.

• The Mormons were escaping religious persecution. They built a city that became economically prosperous, making money from other travelers, particularly those traveling on to California.
• The California migration was fueled by the gold rush, with its associated greed. This migration consisted almost entirely of men. Their intent was to make money, then return east as wealthy men. As they had no wives with them, they had acute needs and had little moral character or values. Greed and lust drove this migration.
• The largest migration was the migration to Oregon. These were families, with strong family values and a rugged sense of individualism. When these families moved into Oregon, this instilled a strong sense of stability, paving the way for political, economic, judicial, communities, and educations systems that did not exist before.

More Confluent Events: The Arrival of Women and The Whitman Massacre

The first white women to cross the continental divide and move down the Oregon Trail to the territory were Narcissa Whitman, the wife of a medical missionary, and Elizabeth Spalding, crossing the Divide to the Trail on July 4, 1836. This sent a strong message east that women could travel the trail. This meant the West was no longer just a place for explorers and mountain men, but for families, and could be settled for building communities. There was soon a flood of families, and on the trail were many women who were already pregnant, often giving birth in the primitive wagons. At this time women didn't talk about such things, and the journals of the women often go silent about the pregnancy and the birth. Suddenly, their journal shows a new family member and the writing continues.- with often the woman trying to catch up with the missing entries. As one did not ride the wagons but walked with the wagons, you can imagine the hardships of these early families and their pain at seeing many of their friends die on the trip west with them.

Whitman set up a mission at Waiilatpo, near present-day Walla Walla. As the settlers moved west, they brought the white-man's diseases with them, and measles was one of these. Whitman could help the settlers who had resistance to the measles, but the Indians died by the scores from the same illness as they had little resistance. The Indians thought Whitman was responsible for their deaths, and in 1847 the Cayuse Indians massacred of the Whitmans and 12 others at Waiilatpo. The women died in the massacre. The Indians responsible for leading the massacre were captured and executed at Oregon City. The was a primary confluent event, forever affecting the destiny of the Territory. The Oregon Territory was recognized in 1848, and included what is now Oregon, Washington, Idaho, western Montana, and western Wyoming. The territorial recognition was probably accelerated by the event and the concern of the settlers for protection from the Indians.

Introduction of Political Corruption

By 1860 Portland had already developed a seamy underside quite unlike her quaint respectable initial image. Three of the biggest injustices at this time were political corruption, the blatant vice of the “North End”, and racial prejudice. Oregon became a state in 1859.

From the beginning, dirty politics and shady business deals have plagued Portland. The demons of greed, power, and control took their toll in the history of the city. Speaking of the 1860s, Rabbi Stephen Wise stated,

“It was the union of gambling and liquor interests plus organized prostitution, which in collusion with city officials and above all the police department, poisoned and corroded the life of the city.”9

Political graft flourished in the late 19th century in Portland. Historians depict three industries as having particularly unwashed hands: The Oregon Steam and Navigation Company, both Northern and Southern Pacific Railroads, and brewer Henry Weinhard. Both railroads were indicted in 1904 for timber fraud along with 33 politicians. All were prosecuted and convicted in the famous Timber Fraud Trials.

By 1905, Portland Chamber of Commerce president William Wheelwright wrote in the Chamber Bulletin, “We are witness...to a spectacle of public and private rottenness that is almost without precedent in the annals of the country”. Just a year before, United States Prosecutor Francis Heney, in a speech to Portland's top business leaders, bluntly alleged “You men corrupt all you touch”10.

Introduction of Blatant Vice in the “North End”

From the 1860s to this day, Burnside Street has been the most significant sentient boundary in Portland. South of Burnside lies the reputable and beautiful city one might see in glossy Chamber of Commerce photos. North of Burnside the visitor will find a grimy community of junkies, hobos, gamblers, vagrants, prostitutes, scavengers, ruffians, and criminals. It has been like this for over 130 years.

In the early 1860s Portlanders south of Burnside described their relations with those in the “North End” as adversarial—”The Puritan soldiers of the Lord vs. the Adversary Satan City”11. Satan's City referred to the “North End”, which began at Burnside. In her excellent book on the Burnside Community, Kathleen Ryan writes that alcohol, drugs, sex, and poverty are the images which have crafted the neighborhoods stereotype.12 This part of the city has historically been more than the home of petty vice and vagrancy, however. Historian Dean Collins suggests that much of the political graft in Portland's history originated in this part of the city. Referring to the election of Mayor Thomas Holmes in 1866 by “the Adversary Satan City element in Portland”, Colins writes,

“The history of Portland during the remainder of the century is the history of how the City of Destruction, the old `North End', dominated the Politics of Oregon.”13

Near the corner of Northwest 2nd and Burnside was a tavern with the longest bar in the world. Beneath the streets that laced this part of town was a jungle of underground tunnels. Unsuspecting men wandering the area would often be slipped a mickey in the local bars, then shanghaied only wake up to find themselves shipped to sea in whatever ship had ported at the city the previous night. The tunnels are still there today, and have become the shelters and “homes” for the homeless that still roam the streets (see Chapter 2). Some of those who work with the homeless feel there is a need here for reconciliation. The wrongs of the past still hold powers of bondage in the area.

“Cursed is he who strikes his neighbor in secret. Cursed is he who accepts a bribe to strike down an innocent person. Cursed is he who does not confirm the worlds of this law by doing them.”
Deuteronomy 27:10-12

Introduction of Racial Prejudice

Today the vast majority of Portlanders are white. The 1990 census reported that whites composed 84.6% of the population, the highest proportion among the 50 biggest U.S. cities (Portland is the 27th largest metro area in the U.S.). This wasn't always the case. A hundred years ago over half of the people in Portland were either foreign-born or the children of immigrants, and 10% of the city's population couldn't speak English. The population of most of the largest ethnic groups crested around the turn of the century (Figure 5.3).

“Unfortunately,” as Elaine Friedman notes,

“Newcomers were not always welcomed. The histories recount prejudice and violence against the Chinese, exclusions laws aimed at Blacks, clubs that were closed to Jews, and Ku Klux Klan attacks on Catholics.”14

Though Blacks were a small minority, they suffered particular hostility. In 1844 the first exclusion law was passed by the provisional government of the Oregon County. It required all Blacks to leave the territory within 3 years. Violators were subject to public whippings. In 1849 the Oregon legislator passed a bill to prohibit blacks and mulattoes from settling the territory. In 1857 another exclusion law was passed by a margin of 8640 to 1081. Elizabeth McLagan, author of A History of Blacks in Oregon, writes that this vote

“..was a clear victory for the settlers who came to the Far West to escape the racial troubles of the East. Oregon was to remain a remote eden, dedicated to the destinies of white men only.”15

Perhaps the most stunning instance of racial injustice was the barbarous treatment of Native American by the people of Oregon. By 1855 the Indians of Western Oregon had been forcibly relocated to three reservations: the Siletz, Warm Springs, and Grand Ronde. They were refugees in their own land. Thousands died. Beyond the blatant unfairness of the reservations, the Indians were harmed by the Whites in four ways:

• Indian women were kidnapped to be used as mistresses for white men.
• The introduction of alcohol decimated Indian culture.
• Unfamiliar diseases wiped out entire tribes.
• Indians were captured to be used or sold as slaves.16

As if these abuses were not heinous enough in themselves, in 1844 the Commissioners of Oregon's Provisional Government added insult to injury by declaring

“This country has been populated by powerful tribes but it has pleased the great dispenser of human events to reduce them to mere shadow of their former greatness. Thus removing the chief obstruction to the entrance of civilization and opening the way for the introduction of Christianity where ignorance and idolatry have reigned uncontrolled for many ages.”17

By 1880 the Indians of Oregon had been virtually exterminated as a people. They were victims of genocide at a level perhaps not seen again until the extermination of Jews by the Third Reich.

“Cursed is he who distorts the justice due an alien, orphan, and widow”
Deuteronomy 27:19

This is a clear indictment of the treatment of the Indians, Blacks, Chinese, and other groups in the West during the settlement of Portland.

[Questions:

What was the single most important development that changed initial community circumstances?

What was the pattern of immigrant influx? Dates?

Did certain ethnic groups adapt better than others?

Has there been slavery?

Have contracts, treaties, or covenants been broken?

When did non-Christian religions enter? Patterns?

Have there been sudden economic changes? How and when?

How did people respond?

How have adaptive deceptions maintained spiritual bondage?

Can you discern any demonic master plan?]

[Identify other confluent events.

For example: The Gold Rush, where men left everything, including family, to go to California. Is there a spirit of abandonment from that? Does it still affect the area and what areas? Get objective information.]

World War II/The Vanport Flood

With World War II, Oregon moved out of the Depression and became a major shipbuilding center. Vanport, a housing project in north Portland, was at the time the largest housing project in the United States and perhaps the world. It was conceived, designed, and built in less than a year. The “city” was located in the area approximately bounded now by the Columbia, I-5, Denver Avenue, and Columbia Boulevard. Columbia River Slough). The shipyards were on the Willamette River north of St. Johns and across the Columbia in Vancouver. Five and a half years later the city was dead, destroyed in a few hours by a Memorial Day flood in 1948.

Vanport began as a housing project of Henry Kaiser. The purpose was to shelter the thousands of war workers that came to the Portland area to work in his Oregon Shipbuilding Corporation. In August of 1942, the Corporations were building ships on a average of a ship every 50.2 days. Before the war the Portland population was about 340,000. With the war within a year 160,000 new workers were added locally. Soon Vanport became the responsibility of the federal government and the local Federal Public Housing Authority. Vanport, the state's second largest city at the time, at no local government and had the largest urban non-white population in Oregon's history.

Vanport made a major contribution in pushing the Portland area into the modern world of race relations. Wartime shortages increased the number of blacks imported. In 1940 the black population of Portland was 2565. The 1940 census showed Oregon once had a population of 3000 black men and women, which dropped to 1800 by the 1940 census. Most were in the Portland area. Most Portlander's thought these to be in the Albania area, but this wasn't true. About half of the blacks were scattered throughout the entire Portland area. One reason Portland didn't have much of a race problem then is that there just weren't many blacks. Vanport changed that. In 1944 Vanport housed 6000. By 1946 the total number of blacks in Vanport plus Portland was 15,000, an over 800% increase. The effect was catalytic and permanent.18 Reverend James Clow, pastor of the Mt. Olivet Baptist Church at the time, served as spokesman for the black community of Vanport. As additional housing opened at the shipyard, Vanport became increasing black. Clow charged discrimination, but there is insufficient data to verify this. The federal government made it clear its job was not to initiate social change, and Vanport was, indeed, a sizable social experiment.

Vanport has a distinguished image for what it was doing for the war cause and gained national publicity. It was one of the most successful wartime housing construction projects in history, proving that government, local people, and industry could work together to meet housing, vocational, and community needs. The leaders represented the best of individualistic America. Other housing projects in the country could not duplicate this success. On the counter side, however, it was heavily regulated by the government: government-supported child care and schools, had rules and regulations, and even provided free custodial care and heat in churches.

After the war (1945) many of the whites left Portland, while a very high percentage of blacks remained. Now the Vanport image shifted and by 1946 it was rock bottom. With the absence of war news, a tiny scrape would make front page news in the paper. Welfare was also a problem. During a two-month period starting in December of 1945, ten fires were set by one or more arsonists. Vanport became tagged as a black project, and became the scapegoat for community frustrations, and there was just enough truth to sustain this. In January, 1945 blacks composed 18% of the total families at Vanport. This increased to 28% by April. By October this was 35%. From 1946 on, there was little change. This brought a rich awareness of the racial issue to the area. At the United Church Ministry in Vanport, the blacks formed a larger part of the congregation with a total worship attendance of about 300. Federal laws prohibited discrimination in any type of public hiring, but the issue was still acute. In addition, the lack of news after the war made issues surrounding Vanport more visible. In one sense, Portland did better than many other cities in dealing with the issues. The awareness of the problem enabled the city to approach it early and creatively, much more so than in other cities. Vanport provided a framework for exploring racial problems. Discrimination issues, when they did arise, were not due to policies but the actions of individuals. There is no criminal statistics to indicate that the blacks created more or less to the criminal activity, as the county kept no data until 1946. Economic statistics, however, showed the blacks to have a rate of delinquent accounts twice that of the whites, primarily due to the difficulty of getting jobs after the war.

World War II, and then the postwar period, created a number of problems that affected may of the city's systems. Schools needed year-round terms, crime increased, social services were stretched. Portland State University was started during this time as the Vanport Extension Center.

By 1946, the Vanport image shifted again to a more positive view. Programs were in place, newspapers were emphasizing positive aspects of the city, and there were more requests for commercial space. Vanport might have had a future. The truth was a more middle ground. Welfare cases were still rising.

The flood would change all this. On May 30 the railroad dike marking the west boundary of Vanport broke at about 4:17 p.m. with only a ten minute warning. The first certain fatality did not occur until 9:30 p.m., when the Denver Avenue road collapsed. In the space of a few hours, Vanport disappeared forever. The actual death list was small, with fifteen bodies at the County Coroner's office and another seven names unaccounted for. The land where the city once stood is now used for a sport's car track and drag strip.

With the loss of Vanport, the displaced residents moved south to the north and northeast areas of Portland, which today is predominantly black. By the mid 20th century, hostility toward blacks (15,000 in 1945) was so rampant that an Urban League official called Portland “the most prejudiced city in the west”19.

Citizen Involvement in Politics

Neil Goldschmidt was elected to mayor in 1972. This election was significant because it was perhaps the first time that grassroots citizen involvement won against powerful business and real estate interests which had nearly controlled Portland government before.

Before the Goldschmidt era, helter-skelter development had taken its toll on the city. In the name of progress, I-405, Harbor Drive, the Stadium Freeway, and I-5 were all constructed. This led some to call the 1950s and 60s the “reign of the automobile”. By 1972 “51% of Portland's downtown area had been usurped by the automobile”20. This development carried a price tag. The downtown area was depopulated and impoverished, while the suburbs boomed. By the early 1970s air quality standards were violated over 100 days each year (compared with only two days in 1991). Gridlock also became a persistent problem which, while it is steadily improving, remains until today. A 1988 study at the Texas A & M University rated Portland's traffic as the 14th worse in the nation.21

The Goldschmidt administration created the office of Planning and Development (OPD), which formed the Downtown Plan of 1972. The objectives of the plan were:

1. Preserving the neighborhoods
2. Creating and maintaining affordable and adequate housing
3. Commitment to public transportation
4. Sustaining and expanding commercial and industrial districts that would revitalize downtown

“From the date of the Downtown Plan, the 1970s became an era of urban revitalization and citizen-government cooperation in making Portland what the first urban ranking done by the Environmental Protection Agency called “America's most liveable city”.22

Notes:

1. DeMarco, Gordon. A Short History of Portland. San Francisco: Lexikos, 1990., p. 6
2. Ibid., p 14
3. Ibid., p 32
4. Neuberger, Richard (U.S. Senator from Oregon) comment in the March 1, 1947 issue of The Saturday Evening Post
5. DeMarco, Gordon. A Short History of Portland., P. 37
6. Friedman, Elaine. The Facts of Life in Portland Oregon. Portland: Portland Possibilities, Inc., 1993., p. 88
7. DeMarco, Gordon. A Short History of Portland., p. 35
8. Snyder, Eugene. Early Portland: Stump-Town Triumphant. Portland: Binford & Mort Publishing, 1970., p. 1
9. DeMarco, Gordon. A Short History of Portland., p. 44
10. Ibid., p. 45
11. Ibid., p. 43
12. Beach, Mark and Kathleen Ryan. Burnside, A Community. Portland: Coast to Coast Books, 1979.
13. DeMarco, Gordon. A Short History of Portland., p. 44 (Quoted in)
14. Friedman, Elaine. The Facts of Life in Portland Oregon., p. 91
15. DeMarco, Gordon. A Short History of Portland., p. 50 (Quoted in)
16. Ibid., p. 17
17. Ibid., p. 41
18. Maben, Manly. Vanport. Portland: Oregon Historical Society Press, 1987, p. 87.
19. Demarco., p. 135
20. Ibid, p. 144.
21. Friedman, Elaine. The Facts of Life in Portland Oregon., p. 36
22. DeMarco, Gordon. A Short History of Portland., p. 145
23. Freeman, Olga Samuelson, A Guide to Early Oregon Churches. Eugene, Oregon, 1976. (This is used to document most of the denominational history.)
24. DeMarco, Gordon. A Short History of Portland. San Francisco: Lexikos, 1990., p. 27
25. Ruby, Robert H. and Brown, John. Indians of the Pacific Northwest. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1981, p. 73
26. Barker, William. A Saviour for All Seasons. Revell, 1986.
27. Dunbar, G. Samuel. Truth Along the Trail: A Centennial History of the Church of God in Oregon. Publications Commission of the Association of the Churches of God in Oregon and Southwest Washington, 1993.